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A generation ago, alert historians jolted the field of witchcraft studies by calling attention to the fact that it was women in particular who burned on the pyres of the European witch trials. Amazingly enough, earlier historians had overlooked, or at least underplayed that particular skew in the record. Now the idea of witch-hunts as a “women's holocaust” is old hat, and in fact, has made one of those rare successful crossovers into popular culture. Historical approaches never stay still, however, and recent publications have reoriented the discussion yet again. A spate of new interpretations, particularly by Stuart Clark and Robin Briggs, push gender off the center of the screen, arguing that other factors were equally or more important in shaping accusations. Other works muddy the waters by noting the many places, particularly in the Baltic and Scandinavia, but also pockets within Western Europe, where men, not women, comprised a large fraction or even the majority of the accused. Evidence of male witches in Estonia, Finland, and Iceland is found in Maia Madar, “Estonia I: Werewolves and Poisoners,” in Early Modern European Witchcraft: Centres and Peripheries, Bengt Ankarloo and Gustav Henningsen, eds. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 257–72; Juhan Kahak, “Estonia II: The Crusade against Idolatry,” in ibid., 273–84; Antero Heikkinen and Timo Kervinen, “Finland: The Male Domination,” in ibid., 319–38; Kirsten Hastrup, “Iceland: Sorcerers and Paganism,” in ibid., 383–401; Marko Nenonen, ‘”Envious are all the People, Witches Watch at Every Gate”: Finnish Witches and Witch Trials in the 17th Century,' Scandinavian Journal of History 18 (1993):77–91. In Western Europe, regions that produced larger trials generally included higher percentages of males among the accused. See E. William Monter, Witchcraft in France and Switzerland: The Borderlands during the Reformation (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976); H. C. Erik Midelfort, Witch-Hunting in Southwestern Germany, 1562–1684: The Social and Intellectual Foundations (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972). In the heart of Europe, France also offers some exceptionally high representation of males in particular jurisdictions, although not uniformly throughout the country. Alfred Soman finds that over half of the 1,300 defendants who appealed witchcraft convictions before the Parlement of Paris were male. Alfred Soman, “Les Procès de sorcellerie au Parlement de Paris (1565 – 1640),” Annales 32 (1977):790 – 814; and “La Sorcellerie vue du Parlement de Paris au début du XVIIe siècle,” Actes du 104e congrès national des sociétés savantes, Bordeaux, 1979, Section d'histoire moderne et contemporaine (Paris, 1981); and Sorcellerie et justice criminelle (16e–18e siècles) (London, 1992), 798 – 99. William Monter finds an extraordinary pocket of male witches in Normandy. “Here, in the Pays de Caux, lay the epicenter of male witchcraft in Western Europe.” W. Monter, “Toads and Eucharists: The Male Witches of Normandy, 1564 – 1660,” French Historical Studies 20 (1997):563 – 95, quote on 581. Other discussions of the involvement of men in witchcraft trials include Eva Labouvie, “Männer im Hexenprozess. Zur Sozialanthropologie eines ‘männlichen' Verstädnisses vom Magie und Hexerei,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 16 (1990):56 – 78; Robert W. Thurston, Witch, Wicce, Mother Goose: The Rise and Fall of the Witch Hunts in Europe and North America (London: Longman, 2001), 126 – 27.On Russia's male witches, see Russell Zguta, “Witchcraft Trials in Seventeenth-Century Russia,” American Historical Review 82 (1977):1187–207; Valerie Kivelson, “Through the Prism of Witchcraft: Gender and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Muscovy,” in Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation, Barbara Evans Clements, Barbara Alpern Engel, and Christine D. Worobec, eds. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); A. S. Lavrov, Koldovstvo i religiia v Rossii, 1700–1740 gg. (Moscow: Drevlekhranilishche, 2000); E. B. Smilianskaia, Koldun i ved'ma v kontekste russkoi kul'tury XVIII veka (Moscow: ROO “Sodeistvie sotrudnichestvu Instituta imeni Dzh. Kennana,” 2000); “Sudebno-sledstvennye dokumenty kak istochnik po istorii obshchestvennogo soznaniia (iz opyta izucheniia “dukhovnykh del” pervoi poloviny XVIII v.),” in Issledovaniia po istorii knizhnoi i traditsionnoi narodnoi kul'tury Severa (Sytyvkar, 1997), 168 – 75; and her forthcoming book, Volshebniki, bogokhul'niki, eretiki. Narodnaia religioznost' i dukhovnye prestupleniia v Rossii XVIII veka (Moscow: Indrik, 2002). W. F. Ryan also acknowledges some gender imbalance among those accused in Russia, in, “The Witchcraft Hysteria in Early Modern Europe: Was Russia an Exception?” Slavonic and East European Review 76 (1998):49 – 84. Still, little systematic work has appeared that seriously attempts to sort out why in some areas people believed that, “particularly through the agency of woman are infernal enchantments brought to pass,” and elsewhere men became the more common targets of accusation. The quote is taken from an early Russian text, but the presence of this textual tradition did not prevent later Muscovites from accusing primarily male witches. The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text, Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, trans and ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: The Medieval Academy of America, 1973), entry for the year 1071, p. 153.
In the heart of Europe, France also offers some exceptionally high representation of males in particular jurisdictions, although not uniformly throughout the country. Television shows that feature witches or witchcraft like WandaVision, A Discovery of Witches, Bewitched, or The Charmed Ones have very little to do with the real practice of witchcraft or those who pursue this form of spirituality.
One of the main reasons why customers choose Le Magic Cleaners is because of their attention to detail. They take the time to thoroughly clean every nook and cranny, leaving no dirt or dust behind. Their goal is to provide customers with a clean and healthy environment.
Are There Male Witches?
Witchcraft is a part of spirituality for many Pagans. As such, most Pagans who practice witchcraft prefer to be called “witches,” regardless of their gender identity. While witches and witchcraft are usually associated with the Wiccan religious movement, not all witches are Wiccan. In 1974, several prominent witches organized the American Council of Witches, an institution designed to define and promote witchcraft. Even at that date, the Council was clear that membership had nothing to do with race, gender, or sexuality. Though the Council was short-lived and was disbanded after a year, it has since been revived as the U.S. American Council of Witches. In Paganism, witchcraft is the practice of “white magic,” which involves spells and incantations that are meant to heal or benefit the self or others. Pagan witches reject any practice of magic that may inflict curses or harm on another person—practices that are sometimes known as “black magic.” “White magic” rituals engage a variety of implements from nature or the occult—crystals, candles, herbs, incense, and tarot cards. Wiccans, in particular, are known in part for their moral code, referred to by many as the Wiccan Rede. It is summarized as “If it harms none, do what you will.” This ethic allows for maximum individuality and freedom, and yet warns followers that malice and rituals that seek to manipulate others or inflict harm will redound on the practitioner.
The term “warlock,” which some may associate with male witches, is considered by many Pagans to be an offensive and misleading term. Some believe that calling someone a “warlock” indicates satanic or dark activities, whereas witches, of any gender, practice what they call white, or light, magic. (Some Pagans add a ‘k’ to the word: magick.) Other appellations include wizard and sorcerer. These, too, are not normally gender-specific terms. They usually denote a degree of training, expertise, or extraordinary ability. Wizards may have trained under other wizards in particular practices or may have attended a school of wizardry that instructs students in different forms of magic. Sorcerers are often considered to be those with inborn abilities which, combined with training, result in even more powerful magic. Magic (or magick) for all of these classifications may include casting spells, reading tarot cards, communicating with unseen spirits, telekinesis, channeling energy, mind reading, and more. None of these categories is relevant to most pop cultural expressions of witchcraft or wizardry today. J.K. Rowling has been clear that her Harry Potter series is a different world of magic than anything Pagan today. Television shows that feature witches or witchcraft—like WandaVision, A Discovery of Witches, Bewitched, or The Charmed Ones—have very little to do with the real practice of witchcraft or those who pursue this form of spirituality. Read more about the Pagan world—its beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, history, and ethics—here.
3/6/2023 10:07:36 PM About About Kathleen Mulhern, PH.D.
Kathleen Mulhern is a writer, editor, historian, speaker, and professor. She teaches courses in world history, European history, and history of Christianity. She has taught at Colorado School of Mines and Regis University, and is currently an adjunct professor at Denver Seminary in the areas of Church History and Spiritual Formation. Kathleen graduated with a B.A. from Wheaton College, earned an M.A. in French Literature from the University of Denver, an M.A. degree in Church History from Denver Seminary, and a Ph.D. in History from the University of Colorado.
The term “warlock,” which some may associate with male witches, is considered by many Pagans to be an offensive and misleading term. Some believe that calling someone a “warlock” indicates satanic or dark activities, whereas witches, of any gender, practice what they call white, or light, magic. (Some Pagans add a ‘k’ to the word: magick.) Other appellations include wizard and sorcerer. These, too, are not normally gender-specific terms. They usually denote a degree of training, expertise, or extraordinary ability. Wizards may have trained under other wizards in particular practices or may have attended a school of wizardry that instructs students in different forms of magic. Sorcerers are often considered to be those with inborn abilities which, combined with training, result in even more powerful magic. Magic (or magick) for all of these classifications may include casting spells, reading tarot cards, communicating with unseen spirits, telekinesis, channeling energy, mind reading, and more. None of these categories is relevant to most pop cultural expressions of witchcraft or wizardry today. J.K. Rowling has been clear that her Harry Potter series is a different world of magic than anything Pagan today. Television shows that feature witches or witchcraft—like WandaVision, A Discovery of Witches, Bewitched, or The Charmed Ones—have very little to do with the real practice of witchcraft or those who pursue this form of spirituality. Read more about the Pagan world—its beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, history, and ethics—here.
In addition to their regular cleaning services, Le Magic Cleaners also offers special services such as deep cleaning, move-in/move-out cleaning, and post-construction cleaning. These services are designed to tackle the toughest cleaning challenges and leave the area sparkling clean. Le Magic Cleaners is also committed to using eco-friendly cleaning products. They understand the importance of reducing their carbon footprint and protecting the environment. By using eco-friendly supplies, they ensure that their cleaning process is safe for both their customers and the planet. Customer satisfaction is a top priority for Le Magic Cleaners. They strive to exceed customer expectations with every cleaning job. Their friendly and professional staff are always ready to go the extra mile to make sure that customers are happy with the results. If you're in need of professional cleaning services, Le Magic Cleaners is the company to call. With their expertise, attention to detail, and commitment to customer satisfaction, they will leave your space looking fresh and clean. Contact them today for a quote and experience the magic of Le Magic Cleaners..
Reviews for "Cleaning hacks with Le Magic Cleaners: Simple tricks for a spotless home"
1. John Doe - rating: 1/5 - I was extremely disappointed with the service provided by Le Magic Cleaners. The name itself is misleading, as there was nothing magical about their cleaning. They did a poor job of getting stains out of my carpet and left it looking even dirtier than before. The staff was rude and unprofessional, making me feel like a burden rather than a valued customer. I would not recommend Le Magic Cleaners to anyone in need of cleaning services.
2. Jane Smith - rating: 2/5 - My experience with Le Magic Cleaners was less than satisfactory. While they were able to remove some of the stains from my upholstery, there were still noticeable marks left behind. Additionally, their prices were quite high compared to other cleaning companies in the area. The customer service was mediocre, with long wait times on the phone and no sense of urgency in resolving issues. Overall, I was not impressed with Le Magic Cleaners and will not be using their services again.
3. Mike Johnson - rating: 2/5 - I had high hopes for Le Magic Cleaners based on their promises of top-quality cleaning, but unfortunately, they fell short. The staff seemed untrained and inexperienced, as they struggled to effectively clean my curtains. Despite their efforts, there were still visible stains left behind. The prices were exorbitant for the unsatisfactory results achieved. I would advise others to seek alternative cleaning services that can actually deliver on their promises.
4. Sarah Thompson - rating: 1/5 - Le Magic Cleaners were a complete disappointment. They claimed to provide thorough cleaning services, but I found their work to be subpar. Not only did they fail to remove tough stains from my carpets, but they even damaged the fibers in the process. The customer service was equally frustrating, with unhelpful and dismissive staff who showed no concern for the issues I raised. I would strongly advise against using Le Magic Cleaners and suggest finding a more reputable cleaning company.